Three Strategies for Sustainable
Design in the Developing World
Anthony Crabbe
Introduction
The difference between contemporary and past views of “sustain-
ability” is that the term currently references an immense proj-
ect, first internationalized in the early 1980s through the United
Nations leadership of a World Commission on Environment and
Development. The commission’s 1987 Brundtland Report, Our
Common Future, applied the notion of sustainability to all of the
following: the international economy, global population, food secu-
rity, species and ecosystems, energy, industry, urbanism, oceans
and space, and peace and security.1 Note that this understanding of
sustainability subsumes even those notions of natural and human
“ecology” that designers like Victor Papanek started to urge their
colleagues to address in the early 1970s. Also interesting is that the
term “sustainability,” is never used in Papanek’s Design for the Real
World,2 and it is mentioned only eight times en passant in William
McDonough’s 2002 environmental design tract, From Cradle to
Cradle.3 The larger scope of the UN definition then makes it hard
to think of “sustainable” design as anything other than one compo-
1 Gro H. Brundtland, chairman, Report
nent of a holistic plan for global survival that involves a host of
of the World Commission on Environment
specialized disciplines beyond design.
and Development: Our Common Future

Viewed in this context, it is hard to identify a short list of
(UN, 1987), http://www.un-documents.
net/wced-ocf.htm (accessed January
criteria for sustainable practices in any discipline, particularly in
9, 2011).
a “cross-disciplinary” one such as design. Nevertheless, this paper
2 Victor Papanek, Design for the Real
takes a modest first step by reviewing a small subset of sustain-
World: Human Ecology and Social
able design-and-make projects that are part of the global project of
Change (New York: Pantheon
sustainability, in order to identify and comprehend their strategies,
Books, 1971).
3 William McDonough and Michael
and where possible, to evaluate the efficacy of these strategies from
Braungart, From Cradle to Cradle
the grand perspective of sustainable development. The only set of
(New York: Northpoint Press, 2002).
overarching sustainability metrics I consider in this review is the
4 The Natural Step Foundation,
“Natural Step,” proposed by K-H Robèrt et al.,4 which comprises
http://www.thenaturalstep.org/the-
four measures they acknowledge as open to refinement and not
system-conditions (accessed January
directly applicable to every issue raised in the Brundtland Report.5
8, 2011).
5 John Holmberg, Ulrika Lundqvist,
Otherwise, this review is not consciously predicated upon theo-
Karl-Henrik Robèrt, and Mathis
retical notions of either design or sustainability. I have selected
Wackernagel, “The Ecological Footprint
three case studies as vehicles for what might be termed a phenom-
from a Systems Perspective of
enological investigation of differing approaches to “sustainable”
Sustainability,” International Journal
design practice.
of Sustainable Development and World
Ecology 6 (1999), 17-33.
© 2012 Massachusetts Institute of Technology
6
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Beyond the 1980s, at a time when 2% of the world’s population
now owns 50% of its wealth,6 and half of the world’s individuals
live on less than US$2 a day,7 there are tens of thousands of orga-
nizations in the developed world charitably offering their design
and development expertise to help neighbors in the develop-
ing world create products and systems for providing basic needs
such as water, fuel and housing.8 In this context, the term “sustain-
able” applies not only to responsible and effective management of
resources, but also to the preservation of life. Non-governmental
organizations (NGOs), charities, and social businesses currently
follow a number of sustainable design strategies, including the
following three:
1.
Charitable strategies: Using developed world know-how

to design products and systems that can be charitably

distributed in developing world communities.

2. Networked strategies: Enabling developing world

communities to work collaboratively with international

networks in designing and developing their own

products and systems for both personal use and

communal income generation.

3. Social business strategies: Harnessing artisanal design-

and-make skills to create self-sustaining social businesses

in developing world communities that can sell their prod-

ucts in both local and export markets.
Strategy 1 is the simplest and quickest way to deliver products and
systems to countries without the manufacturing or market infra-
structure to introduce, for example, medicines, machinery, or tele-
communications and IT products and services—items that could
not be introduced as a result of following either strategy 2 or strat-
egy 3. However, unlike strategies 2 and 3, strategy 1 is sustainable
6 David Brown, “Richest tenth own 85% of
world’s assets,” Sunday Times, December
only as long as developed world communities remain supportive
6, 2006.
of charitable causes. Both donors and recipients alike are concerned
7 World Bank, 2008, http://web.worldbank.
that strategy 1 runs the risk of sustaining a culture of both finan-
org/wbsite/external/topics/extpoverty/0
cial and political dependency in developing world communities.9
,,contentMDK:21517391~menuPK:33699
Strategies 2 and 3 may then be seen as endeavors to improve the
8~pagePK:64020865~piPK:149114~theSi
tePK:336992,00.html (accessed February
capacity of recipients to manage their basic needs independently,
11, 2011).
and even profitably. In this regard, they score better under most
8 World Bank, NGO Research Guide, 2006,
current sustainability metrics—for example, under the “fourth prin-
http://library.duke.edu/research/subject/
ciple” of the Natural Step, a set of principles, each derived from
guides/ngo_guide/igo_ngo_coop/ngo_
four proposed “system conditions” of nature, shown in Table 1.
wb.html (accessed February 10, 2011).

Infrastructure and investment are the most important factors
9 R. L. Stirrat and Heiko Henkel, “The
Development Gift: The Problem of
determining which of strategies 1, 2, or 3 is the most appropriate
Reciprocity in the NGO World,” Annals
to local need. For example, in India alone, there are between 1.5
of the American Academy of Political
and 3 million NGOs operating mostly on life-sustaining projects.10
and Social Science 554 (1997), 66-80.
However, the booming Indian economy is now a major exporter
10 IndianNGOs.com, http://www.west-
of the machinery used for water, sanitation, fuel, and building
godavari.org/NGO/WHATISNGO.asp
(accessed February 11, 2011).
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Table 1 | Natural Step System Conditions and Principles of Sustainability
The Four System Conditions

Reworded as The Four Principles of Sustainability
In a sustainable society, nature is not subjected to

systematically increasing:
To become a sustainable society we must:
1. concentrations of substances extracted from the
1. eliminate our contribution to the progressive buildup of substances extracted
earth’s crust
from the Earth’s crust (for example, heavy metals and fossil fuels)
2. concentrations of substances produced by society
2. eliminate our contribution to the progressive buildup of chemicals and
compounds produced by society (for example, dioxins, PCBs, and DDT)

3. degradation by physical means
3. eliminate our contribution to the progressive physical degradation and

destruction of nature and natural processes (for example, over harvesting
forests and paving over critical wildlife habitat)

4. and, in that society, people are not subject to
4. eliminate our contribution to conditions that undermine people’s capacity to
conditions that systemically undermine their
meet their basic human needs (for example, unsafe working conditions and
capacity to meet their needs
not enough pay to live on).
industries in the developing world. By contrast, troubled states
like Southern Sudan or Timor-Leste have scarcely any industrial
infrastructure, or a collapsed one. As the world’s tenth largest
economy,11 India is then far better placed than many other nations
to independently address sustainability problems, and the kind of
assistance that communities there may require is likely to be very
different from that required in less technologically developed and
politically stable nations. Designers, then, must be aware of both
the political and economic context of the area for which they are
Figure 1
designing—factors that are not perhaps as clear in principle 4 of
Hippo Water Roller.
the Natural Step metrics as in other metrics or agency views.12 The
© Hippo Water Roller Project, Fourways,
2055, South Africa (This image is the product
following sections examine the detail of each of the three identified
of a previous relationship with Hippo Water
design strategies (i.e., charitable, networked, and social business)
International, with which the Hippo Water
by reference to case studies featuring, respectively, Imvubu Projects,
Roller Project is no longer associated).
the Legacy Foundation, and Traidcraft.
11 Wikipedia, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/
Case Study 1: Charitable Design
List_of_countries_by_GDP_(nominal)
The Hippo Roller is a water collecting device designed and manu-
(accessed February 12, 2011).
factured in South Africa in 1992 and manufactured and distributed
12 Volker Beckmann and Martina
since 1998 by a local social enterprise, Imvubu Projects.13 As indi-
Padmanabhan, “Observability,
cated in Figure 1, the design solution is to adapt a 90-liter water
Measurability, and Data Availability”
in Institutions and Sustainability:
barrel into a roller that can be pushed to a distant water supply,
Political Economy of Agriculture and the
such as a stream, into which it may be immersed and filled. The
Environment - Essays in Honour of Konrad
barrel cap is then screwed back on and the barrel is pushed or
Hagedorn, Beckmann and Padmanabhan,
hauled home using the rigid hooped handle fixed to the barrel
eds,. (Berlin: Springer, 2009), 353-57.
axis—an operation that requires far less mechanical work than
13 Janine Erasmus, “Tapping into
carrying filled water containers, and enables the carrier to transport
Ingenuity,” MediaClubSouthAfrica.
com, July 1, 2008, http://www.
five times the volume of water on each trip. Around 30,000 of these
mediaclubsouthafrica.com/index.
cleverly designed products have been distributed to date, including
php?option=com_content&view=
exports to other sub-Saharan African nations lacking the technol-
article&id=549%3Atapping-into-
ogy base found in South Africa, which would enable them to rota-
ingenuity010708&catid=42%3Aland_
tionally mold their own rollers. Since the manufacturing cost of the
news&Itemid=51 (accessed May 15,
2011).
Hippo is around $80, it is unaffordable even to most users in South
8
DesignIssues: Volume 28, Number 2 Spring 2012

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Africa, and so its distribution is almost entirely dependent upon
foreign gift aid and sponsorship, organized principally through the
Africa Foundation and UNICEF. The efforts of these two organiza-
tions have recently been supported by an American-based NGO,
Hippo Water International, which has helped sponsor a redesign
carried out by a San Francisco sustainable design consultancy,
Project H. The new design splits the original unitary rotomolded
barrel into two parts to allow nested stacking during transport.14

On the face of it, then, the Hippo is an outstandingly
successful, local y developed product—a simple, robust solution
that helps desperately poor people meet an essential survival
requirement. However, any fuller measure of its sustainability
would reveal difficulties, of which Imvubu appears well aware:
First, it is a product that can be neither manufactured nor afforded
by its users, who are accordingly made dependent on charity
coming from other countries and organizations, which do not
have a neutral view about the exchange rates for gift aid, as Stirrat
and Henkel point out.15 Second, if Hippo is distributed in areas
where local water supplies can sustain only limited populations,
its greatly increased efficiency may contribute to the over-exploi-
tation of those supplies. Water management is a global issue not
sufficiently transparent in the third principle of the Natural Step,
because the gradual redistribution of water around the planet is a
natural process, irrespective of human contributions. Freshwater
depletion is a problem serious enough to threaten the wel -being
of every nation on earth, evidenced by population migrations and
conflicts over the sharing of common water resources, such as
those which helped trigger the Six-Day War of 1966 between Israel
and its neighbors.16 Third, it is not clear what recycling system is in
place to manage Hippo Rol ers at the end of their lives.
From this case study, designers might take away the following
lessons:

1. They must judge whether a design solution like the

Hippo is worthwhile, not just on the basis of the

short-term need it addresses, but also on whether it

is sustainable in the long term. On the first basis alone,

few could doubt Hippo is a very worthwhile project.
14 R. L. Stirrat and Heiko Henkel, “The

But on the second basis, a design solution that results
Development Gift: The Problem of

in long-term dependency on gift aid cannot be the best
Reciprocity in the NGO World,” Annals of

solution, however pressing the immediate need (as
the American Academy of Political and

suggested by Principle 4 of the Natural Step system).
Social Science 554 (1997): 66-80.
15 Project H Report, http://projecthdesign.

2. The designer cannot be too reliant on metrics such as
org/projects/hipporoller.html (accessed

Natural Step if they lack clear measures for complex
May 2, 2011).

issues as important as water management.
16 G. H. Jansen, “The Problem of the

3. The designer is unlikely to be capable of conducting
Jordan Waters,” World Today 20, no.2

a prospective assessment of the sustainability of a design
(1964): 60-63, http://www.jstor.org/
pss/40393582 (accessed April 24, 2011).

proposal without the assistance and collaboration of
DesignIssues: Volume 28, Number 2 Spring 2012
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others more expert in the field. This reality emphasizes

something already well understood in design circles:

The issue of sustainability increasingly demands that

design teams be multi-disciplinary,17 and that they be

capable both of prospectively identifying sustainability

issues and of continuing to monitor the environmental

impact of their chosen solutions.
Case Study 2: Creating Local Design-and-Make Networks
Figure 2
The collection of firewood places enormous physical burdens on
Legacy lever press in use.
© Legacy Foundation, Ashland, OR 97520,
impoverished women (the principal labor force worldwide), draw-
U.S.A.
ing them farther away from their dependents for longer periods.
It degrades the principal local source of hunted and gathered
food, leads to mass soil erosion and local climate change, and if
unchecked over wide areas, threatens the planetary carbon cycle.
The U.S.-based Legacy Foundation is dedicated to alleviating this
problem by promoting the manufacture and use of fuel briquettes
made close to home from local agricultural and urban wastes.
Legacy recognizes that the solutions offered by their system are
restricted to the preservation of local forestry and the easing of
labor demands on wood gatherers. The briquette system does not
al eviate the problem of carbon emissions from biofuel combustion.

Unlike Imvubu Projects, Legacy has a philosophy aimed at
involving locals in every aspect of their solution—from the design
and build to selling surplus briquettes as an additional source of
income. The foundation encourages its beneficiaries to take charge
of every aspect of the system, using the Internet as its principle
means of global communication, not only to disseminate infor-
mation, but also to recruit volunteers and instructors. The Legacy
website, www.legacyfound.org, not only sells modestly priced
instruction manuals in pdf form, but also publishes details of
local modifications for the appraisal of members across the world.
Where these modifications evolve into proven new designs, they
are added to the stock of instruction manuals; thus, any innovat-
ing user can emerge as a designer and guide within the global user
community. In this regard, the Legacy approach may be seen to
“score” much better than the Hippo case in terms of Natural Step 4,
which is about improving people’s ability to support themselves.

However, many of the products showcased in the Legacy
literature appear far less cleverly designed than the Hippo Roller—
particularly its main briquette press, which is a lever-type made
from wooden planks illustrated in Figure 2. The press design is
17 Multi-Disciplinary Design Education in
the UK: Report and Recommendations
intended to be one that could be made in any community that has
from the Multi-Disciplinary Design
rudimentary carpentry resources, thus allowing for independence
Network (London: Design Council, 2010),
from any external agency. The briquette mold tool comprises a
16-18; http://www.designcouncil.org.
wooden plunger that is forced by the lever into a length of plas-
uk/Documents/Documents/OurWork/
tic waste pipe that has holes drilled in to vent liquids during the
MDnetwork/MDNetwork_FinalReport.pdf
(accessed September 4, 2011).
pressing process. The design allows sufficient plunger travel to
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make with each pressing a moist biomass briquette of around 20 x
3.5cm, with a cured density in the range of 0.2 - 0.4g/cc, depending
on the mix of grasses, leaves, woodchip and paper to hand. This is
a much lower density than the 1-1.3 g/cc achieved by commercial
screw or hammering piston machines, which produce briquettes
having combustion characteristics similar to wood,18 and therefore
the thermal efficiency of the hand-pressed briquettes is 25-30%
lower.19, 20

Commercial machines also extrude briquettes continu-
ously, whereas the lever press is a single-action device requiring
the biomass to be packed into the pipe tool by hand and then the
briquette pushed out by hand before the pipe can be reloaded.
Accordingly, the production capacity of the lever press is less than
10% that of a small motorized briquette press.21 These factors make
the highly sustainable Legacy strategy far less attractive than it
might be, as I know from personal experience of an on-going proj-
ect initiated by a local NGO in Timor-Leste. There, the environmen-
tal threat is particularly acute because the principal wood fuel is
Mangrove root, taken from coastal swamps that are the nurseries
for most of the fish caught locally. Barbequing fish and other foods
on Mangrove wood fires is endemic to the local culture. Locals
believe the wood gives a special flavor to food, and they are expert
in judging its burning characteristics. Given the bulky nature of the
18 P. D. Grover and S. K. Mishra, Biomass
available agricultural waste and the low compression of the lever
Briquetting: Technology and Practices,
presses built for the project, the briquettes needed to contain at
UN FAO GCP/RAS/154/NET Field
Document 46 (Bangkok: Regional
least 50% waste paper to perform as indicated by Legacy literature,
Wood Development Progamme in
which meant the mix was better suited to urban than rural use. So
Asia, 1996), 5-9.
although the locals had no difficulty recognizing the benefits of
19 Owen McDougal, Seth Eidemiller, and
the Legacy system, its optimal performance required close support
Nick Weires, “Biomass Briquettes:
from the NGO personnel.
Turning Waste into Energy,” Biomass

Among the suggestions to consolidate this project in Timor-
Magazine, November 23, 2010, http://
biomassmagazine.com/articles/5148/
Leste are plans to reformulate it more as a social business, rais-
biomass-briquettes-turning-waste-into-
ing capital through a $2 subscription and using it to import cast
energy (accessed April 12, 2011).
iron No. 12 meat grinders from China, for a cost of around $15
20 Joel O. Chaney, Michael J. Clifford and
each for the minimum volume of 200. These screw grinders are
Robin Wilson “An Experimental Study
extremely robust and simple to maintain, and they can be either
of The Combustion Characteristics
of Low-Density Biomass Briquettes,”
hand-cranked or motor-driven via a belt running on the crank
Nottingham University report in
wheel. The grinder mechanism operates exactly like a screw-type
Engineers without Borders, 2010.
briquette machine, producing continuous extrusions that can be
www.ewb-uk.org/system/files/
broken off from the die. Work in the laboratory shows that the
Joel+Chaney+report_0.pdf. (accessed
grinder is capable of compressing mixed biomass without sawdust
April 12, 2011).
or paper to densities close to 1g/cc. The oils expressed from
21 Jason Dahlman and Charles Forst,
“Technologies Demonstrated at Echo:
common weeds (e.g., Jatropha gossipifolia) are a far more calorific
Briquette Presses for Alternative Fuel
fuel than mangrove wood, and they can be used as binding agents
Uses,” American Society of Farm
when the mold is heated and the briquettes torrefied, as is done
Managers and Rural Appraisers (2002),
with commercial machines.
http://www.wcasfmra.org/biogas_docs/
Horizonal%20Biogas%20Digester.pdf
(accessed April 10, 2011).
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Such suggestions could then feed back into the Legacy
loop of self-sustained design and development; but, the change
of design strategy that involves importing and adapting catering
machinery requires an initial voluntary capitalization and a busi-
ness model markedly different from the system developed around
the self-build lever press. The lesson here is that even a relatively
small modification to part of the product design supported by a
Legacy type of network can significantly alter the nature and ethos
of that system and can turn an independent community venture
into a business one. Thus, the cost of the product becomes subject
to market forces, which can make it less affordable to community
members and allow those with more capital to profit at the expense
of those who have less.
Case Study 3: Design for Fair Trading
The third case study involves an approach that actually promotes
the capitalist business model as a way to alleviate poverty through
profitable development of local craft skills. The system is promoted
by the U.K. Christian foundation Traidcraft, which started in the
1970s to pioneer what is now well-known as a “Fair Trade” system;
it has subsequently spread far beyond craft to include commod-
ity and other forms of production. In terms of its craft products,
Traidcraft seeks to enable low-income communities, isolated from
the global marketplace but whose members have design-and-make
skills, to engage with that market by setting up small private or
social businesses. Traidcraft claims its system is sustainable in two
ways: First, it creates work cooperatives in low-income communi-
ties that are isolated from wealth-creating opportunities. Second,
it uses indigenous design-and-make skil s not only to make tradi-
tional products, but also to transform local waste into secondary
products, some having a value as great as the primary one—an
approach commonly known today as “upcycling.” Examples are
bowls made from recycled magazines, and a wash-bag made from
discarded tires, illustrated in Figure 3. As Figure 3 also shows,
Traidcraft (like Legacy) has harnessed the power of a sophisticated
technology—the worldwide web—to publicize and market these
technologically unsophisticated products.

Traidcraft has gone a step further in presenting its products
to a global consumer market through its web store. This strategy
naturally places its products alongside those of other stores (e.g.,
www.myecostore.co.uk), which sell what appear to be nearly
identical types of product. However, a key difference between the
Traidcraft web store and say, My Eco Store, is that Traidcraft are
able to exploit the narrative potential of a website to clarify exactly
which overseas enterprise is designing and making each prod-
uct, and how any profit from the purchase benefits that enterprise
and the community it supports. The Traidcraft web store is also
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Figure 3
Traidcraft webstore page for recycled tire
(tyre) washbag.
© Traidcraft, Gateshead.
clearly linked to the foundation’s site, which gives more informa-
tion about its aims, its constitution, its trustees, collaborators, and
so forth. None of this information is available on the My Eco Store
site. Thus visitors might presume its products are still made in simi-
lar communities, but be left wondering where the designs origi-
nate and whether the craftspeople are, in fact, working under the
direction of others more closely connected to the retailer—in other
words, wondering whether the craftspeople work just like other
outsourced laborers contracted by transnational companies to work
in worse conditions and for less pay than would be acceptable in
the contractor’s home nation.

Although the “ethical” credentials of Traidcraft appear
impeccable compared to many of its competitors in this field, it is
worth observing that the sustainability pitch used for its up-cycled
products is scarcely different. Of course, upcycling is not an activ-
ity restricted to developing world artisans; the approach is prev-
alent among designers of every rank in the developed world as
well, from Frank Gehry to design students. An interesting feature
of such up-cycled goods is the recurrence of certain design types,
such as the recycled tire chair and tables il ustrated in Figure 4.
Because these designs are not trademarked and originate primar-
ily in India, they are presumably designs appropriated by dispa-
rate workshop enterprises all over the subcontinent and exported
using standard marketing methods that favor the distributors far
more than the designers and makers.

This possibility raises questions about the extent to which
the manufacture and marketing of this type of up-cycled prod-
uct helps meet the founding objective of Traidcraft, which is to
close the global poverty gap—or as their website heading says,
“to fight poverty through trade.” The craft production of up-
cycled consumer goods certainly provides employment, which is
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Figure 4
Recycled tire (tyre) furniture.
© Kitsch-U-Like, reproduced by
IGreenSpot.com.
sustainable as long as the demand remains high in local and fickle
international consumer markets. However, whether the skills
acquired through such work will enable those workers to gradu-
ate from being very low-cost artisans to being better paid ones is
not easy to predict. Since any poverty “gap” is bound to be rela-
tive measure, the concern remains that if a social business relies
on making and marketing products that are made affordable
by the very low cost of the labor used to manufacture them,
then the design-and-make skil s being fostered are still very low-
value ones.

For their part, the companies wearing the “eco badge”
to promote products like the tire furniture illustrated in Figure
4 might reasonably claim they are doing their bit to sustain the
planet’s resources. Because tires have been notoriously difficult to
recycle, adapting their remarkable mechanical properties to other
uses appears a clever design strategy, which was being promoted
by environmental groups and government agencies long before the
appearance of the kind of furniture illustrated in developed world
marketplaces, as evidenced by the 1995 report of Viridis.22 However,
given the findings of such reports about the veritable mountains
of scrap tires accumulating as global car ownership increases, the
present volume of up-cycled tire goods would have to grow many
thousands of times over to keep pace. In addition, the fact that
recycled tire furniture can be more expensive than original tires
22 A. B. Hird, P. J. Griffiths, and R. A. Smith,
“Tyre Waste and Resource Management:
(especially when designed and made by developed world busi-
A Mass Balance Approach,” Report from
nesses, such as Tread)23 raises questions about how much value can
Viridis to U.K. Dept. of Trade & Industry
be added to up-cycled products before the cost of the waste supply
and other agencies (1995), 7-8, http://
is driven up, threatening the primary incentive to up-cycle it.
www.massbalance.org/downloads/

Accordingly, anyone persuaded to purchase up-cycled goods
projectfiles/1352-00077.pdf (accessed
on environmental grounds may be judged to be making a purchase
May 9, 2011).
23 Tread, http://www.notonthehighstreet.
that is more symbolic of good intentions than it is supportive of
com/tread (accessed May 11, 2011).
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sustainable design and manufacturing practices. This assump-
tion could present quite a dilemma for Traidcraft. In addition to
up-cycled goods, their inventory also includes traditional garments,
as well as consumables like cooperatively grown wine, where the
ethical endorsement applies to traditional craft production for fair
pay in acceptable working conditions. Giving similar endorse-
ment to their range of recycle-reuse products may then create some
confusion about whether it is the design of the up-cycled products
that is being endorsed, when in fact, the producers appear to have
followed rather than led in terms of design and innovation.
Conclusion
Sustainable design is one small part of an immense global project.
The three case studies selected reveal that it is difficult to assess
differing sustainable design strategies without acknowledging
the great complexity of the global project and the current lack of
an overarching set of sustainability metrics that meets the needs
of all involved. Natural Step has here been used simply as a
first step in trying to assess the sustainability of the three design
strategies examined. It has proven useful in exposing some of
the difficulties inherent in the Imvubu Projects strategy, but it has
also exposed shortcomings in its own method of identifying “natu-
ral conditions.”

The Legacy Foundation approach seems to be the one
that best meets sustainability criteria. Yet its inclusive, devolved
approach might come with a price: that the isolated poor might
not be as well-equipped as external agencies to design and develop
the objects and systems that best meet their own immediate needs.
Traidcraft has approached this problem from the other end, where
citizens of developing countries involve themselves in free market
capitalism and use their profits to increase their capacity to design
and make products more sophisticated than they would be if their
design-and-make ambitions were restricted to using only the most
rudimentary technology and skills. However, because of the enor-
mous capital gap between developing and developed manufactur-
ing nations, the ambitions of the artisanal collectives supported by
Traidcraft tend toward the production of “me too” products—ones
that lack design originality and an independent brand identity
demarcating them from less sustainable competitors. This situation
raises some questions about how far up the economic ladder such
collectives can climb.

There can be little doubt that the three organizations exam-
ined here have developed design strategies that provide invaluable
support for needy communities in the developing world. Therefore,
any limitations in the sustainability of the design practices noted in
these case studies can be viewed positively as ones that offer oppor-
tunities for continuing analysis and improvement.
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